American Psychological Association

American Psychological Association

Logo of the APA
Formation 1892
Headquarters

750 First Street, NE

Washington, D.C., United States
Membership 152,000 members
2010 President Carol D. Goodheart, EdD
CEO Norman Anderson, PhD
Website www.APA.org

The American Psychological Association (abbreviated APA) is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the U.S. and is the world's largest association of psychologists with around 152,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students and has an annual budget of around $115m. The American Psychological Association is occasionally confused with the American Psychiatric Association, which also uses the acronym APA.

Contents

Profile

Mission

The mission of the APA[1] is to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve people’s lives.

The American Psychological Association aspires to excel as a valuable, effective and influential organization advancing psychology as a science, serving as:

The APA core values statement

The American Psychological Association commits to its vision through a mission based upon the following values:

Awards

Each year, the APA recognizes top psychologists with the "Distinguished Contributions" Awards; these awards are the highest honors given by the APA, and among the highest honors that a psychologist or psychology researcher can receive.

Membership and title of "psychologist"

Main article: Psychologist#United States and Canada

APA policy on the use of the title psychologist is contained in the General Guidelines for Providers of Psychological Services[2]: "Psychologists have a doctoral degree in psychology from an organized, sequential program in a regionally accredited university or professional school."

Full membership with the APA in United States and Canada requires doctoral training whereas associate membership requires at least two years of postgraduate studies in psychology or approved related discipline. The minimal requirement of a doctoral dissertation related to psychology for full membership can be waived in certain circumstances where there is evidence that significant contribution or performance in the field of psychology has been made.[3]

Outside of government and academia, a professional in the U.S. or Canada must also hold a psychology license to either practice psychology or use the title "psychologist".[4] The most commonly recognized psychology professionals are clinical and counseling psychologists, those who provide psychotherapy and/or administer and interpret psychological "tests." There are state-by-state differences in requirements for academics in psychology and government employees.

Present organizational structure

APA comprises an executive office, a publishing operation, offices that address administrative, business, information technology, and operational needs, and four substantive directorates:

Affiliate organizations

The American Psychological Association Practice Organization (APAPO) and the Education Advocacy Trust, which operates autonomously as a part of APAPO, are 501(c)(6) entities, separate from APA. They engage in advocacy on behalf of psychological practitioners and health care consumers and psychology education, respectively.

The Psychologically Healthy Workplace program

The Psychologically Healthy Workplace is a program sponsored by the American Psychological Association designed to promote better employment practices. The program and award recognizes employers that provide outstanding work environments and programs in five key areas: employee involvement, work-life balance, employee growth and development, health and safety, and employee recognition. Awards are given at the state and national level.[5][6]

2007 national award winners included: El Nuevo Dia, Green Mountain Coffee Roasters, Healthwise, Koinonia Homes, Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority, YAI/National Institute for People with Disabilities Network.[7]

APA Style

American Psychological Association (APA) Style is a set of rules developed to assist reading comprehension in the social and behavioral sciences. Designed to ensure clarity of communication, the rules are designed to "move the idea forward with a minimum of distraction and a maximum of precision."[8] The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association contains the rules for every aspect of writing, especially in the social sciences from determining authorship to constructing a table to avoiding plagiarism and constructing accurate reference citations.

Early editions of the Publication Manual

The Publication Manual was established in 1929 as a seven-page document with a set of procedures to increase the ease of reading comprehension (APA, 2009a, p. xiii).[9] Created under the sponsorship of the United States National Research Council, its originators included psychologists, anthropologists, and publishing professionals.

In 1952, the booklet was expanded and published as a 55-page supplement in Psychological Bulletin with revisions made in 1957 and 1967 (APA, 1952, 1957, 1967).[10][11][12] The first edition covered word choice, grammar, punctuation, formatting, journal publication policies, and "wrapping and shipping" (APA, Council of Editors, 1952, p. 442).

In response to the growing complexities of scientific reporting, subsequent editions were released in 1974, 1983, 1994, and 2001. Primarily known for the simplicity of its reference citation style, the Publication Manual also established standards for language use that had far-reaching effects. Particularly influential were the "Guidelines for Nonsexist Language in APA Journals," first published as a modification to the 1974 edition, which provided practical alternatives to sexist language then in common usage.[13][14] The guidelines for reducing bias in language have been updated over the years and presently provide practical guidance for writing about race, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation, and disability status (APA, 2009, pp. 70–77; see also APA, 2009b).[15]

Sixth Edition of the Publication Manual

Apapubman.jpg

The sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association was released in July 2009 after 4 years of development. The Publication Manual Revision Task Force of the American Psychological Association established parameters for the revision based on published criticism, user comments, commissioned reviews, and input from psychologists, nurses, librarians, business leaders, publishing professionals, and APA governance groups (APA, 2007a, 2007b)[16][17]. To accomplish these revisions, the Task Force appointed working groups of four to nine members in seven areas: Bias-Free Language, Ethics, Graphics, Journal Article Reporting Standards, References, Statistics, and Writing Style (APA, 2009, pp. xvii-xviii).

Thoroughly reorganized and updated, the sixth edition was significantly revised to incorporate the technological advances that had affected virtually all areas of scientific communication since the previous edition was published (APA, 2001). Specific revisions in the sixth edition include

APA Style online

With the release of the sixth edition of the Publication Manual, there are multiple places where you can learn about APA Style online. Among them are the following:

Resources on apastyle.org

Resources on the APA Style Blog

The APA Style Blog is a repository for current information about APA Style. It addresses commonly asked questions from readers as well as areas the manual may not address, such as

It also answers questions about how to cite regular references as well as electronic references.

Other topic areas include

The "categories" on the right-hand side of the blog show the different areas that have been explored, and users can also search the site using a Google search box to find answers to their questions.

Follow the APA Style Team on Twitter

You can follow the APA Style Team on Twitter to get updates on all things related to APA Style, including announcements about new blog posts, tips and tricks on writing and style, new features on apastyle.org, and more. The Twitter username is @APA_Style.

Errors in the First Printing of the Sixth Edition

Despite multiple reviews of the manuscript at the copyediting and proofreading stages by senior editors, staff realized shortly after the manual had gone to press that the sample papers contained errors. They took prompt action to correct the errors and to post the fully corrected papers on the APA Style website where they were made available for viewing and downloading. Staff concurrently examined the rest of the manuscript and found the following additional errors:

In the interest of transparency (and following the same procedure that was followed for the fifth edition), staff posted all of the corrections online in a single document on October 1, 2009, and shortly thereafter alerted users to the existence of the corrections in a blog entry. On the same day the corrections were posted, an individual posting to the Educational and Behavioral Sciences Section listserv (EBBSS-L) of the American Library Association alerted readers to what she described as the "many" errors in the first printing and speculated that "some but not all" would be corrected in a second printing. On October 5, 2009, APA staff responded to the note clarifying that errors were found in the sample papers, that the papers had been corrected and posted online, that the substantive guidance in the manual was correct and accurate as printed, and that a full list of corrections could be found at the APA Style website.[18]

On October 13, 2009, the article "Correcting a Style Guide" was published in the online newspaper Inside Higher Education that included interviews with several individuals who defined the errors as "egregious" (Epstein, 2009).[19] The article, along with rumors spread on various listervs, resulted in exaggerated accounts of both the magnitude and the extent of the errors, with some reports on Amazon.com claiming more than 80 pages of errors had occurred.

APA responded to the increasing confusion by issuing an apology and implementing a return/replacement program for purchasers who wished to exchange their first printing copies for second printing copies of the Publication Manual. The first edition copies returned to APA were destroyed. The second and all subsequent printings of the Publication Manual have been fully corrected.

Publications

The American Psychologist is the Association's official journal. APA also publishes 57 other journals encompassing most specialty areas in the field, including:[20]

PsycINFO

APA maintains an abstract database named PsycINFO. It contains citations and summaries dating from the 1800s, including journal articles, book chapters, books, technical reports, and dissertations within the field of psychology. As of January 2010, PsycINFO has collected information from 2,457 journals.[21] Similar databases operated by other organizations include PsycLit and Psychological Abstracts.

History

Founding

The APA was founded in July 1892 at Clark University by a group of 26 men. Its first president was G. Stanley Hall. There are currently 54 divisions in the APA,[22] and it is affiliated with 60 state, territorial, and Canadian provincial associations.[23]

Dominance of clinical psychology

Due to the dominance of clinical psychology in APA, several research-focused groups have broken away from the organization. These include the Psychonomic Society in 1959 (with a primarily cognitive orientation), and the Association for Psychological Science (which changed its name from the American Psychological Society in early 2006) in 1988 (with a broad focus on the science and research of psychology). Theodore H. Blau was the first clinician in independent practice to be elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1977.[24]

Past presidents

  • 2009 James H. Bray, Ph.D.
  • 2008 Alan E. Kazdin, Ph.D.
  • 2007 Sharon S. Brehm, Ph.D.
  • 2006 Gerald P. Koocher, Ph.D.
  • 2005 Ronald F. Levant, EdD, ABPP
  • 2004 Diane F. Halpern, Ph.D.
  • 2003 Robert J. Sternberg, Ph.D.
  • 2002 Philip G. Zimbardo, Ph.D.
  • 2001 Norine G. Johnson, Ph.D.
  • 2000 Patrick H. Deleon, Ph.D., MPH, JD
  • 1999 Richard M. Suinn, Ph.D.
  • 1998 Martin E.P. Seligman, Ph.D.
  • 1997 Norman Abeles, Ph.D.
  • 1996 Dorothy W. Cantor, PsyD
  • 1995 Robert J. Resnick, Ph.D., ABPP
  • 1994 Ronald E. Fox, Ph.D.
  • 1993 Frank Farley, Ph.D.
  • 1992 Jack Wiggins, Jr., Ph.D.
  • 1991 Charles Spielberger, Ph.D.
  • 1990 Stanley Graham (psychologist), Ph.D.
  • 1989 Joseph D. Matarazzo, Ph.D.
  • 1988 Raymond D. Fowler, Ph.D.
  • 1987 Bonnie R. Strickland, Ph.D.
  • 1986 Logan Wright, Ph.D.
  • 1985 Robert Perloff, Ph.D.
  • 1984 Janet T. Spence, Ph.D.
  • 1983 Max Siegal, Ph.D.
  • 1982 William Bevan (psychologist), Ph.D.
  • 1981 John J. Conger, Ph.D.
  • 1980 Florence L. Denmark, Ph.D.
  • 1979 Nicholas A. Cummings, Ph.D.
  • 1978 M. Brewster Smith, Ph.D.
  • 1977 Theodore H. Blau, Ph.D.
  • 1976 Wilbert J. McKeachie, Ph.D.
  • 1975 Donald T. Campbell, Ph.D.
  • 1974 Albert Bandura, Ph.D.
  • 1973 Leona E. Tyler, Ph.D.
  • 1972 Anne Anastasi, Ph.D.
  • 1971 Kenneth B. Clark, Ph.D.
  • 1970 George W. Albee, Ph.D.
  • 1969 George A. Miller, Ph.D.
  • 1968 Abraham Maslow, Ph.D.
  • 1967 Gardner Lindzey, Ph.D.
  • 1966 Nicholas Hobbs, Ph.D.
  • 1965 Jerome Bruner, Ph.D.
  • 1964 Quinn McNemar, Ph.D.
  • 1963 Charles E. Osgood, Ph.D.
  • 1962 Paul E. Meehl, Ph.D.
  • 1961 Neal E. Miller, Ph.D.
  • 1960 Donald O. Hebb, Ph.D.
  • 1959 Wolfgang Köhler, Ph.D.
  • 1958 Harry Harlow, Ph.D.
  • 1957 Lee J. Cronbach, Ph.D.
  • 1956 Theodore M. Newcombe, PhD
  • 1955 E. Lowell Kelly, Ph.D.
  • 1954 O. Hobart Mowrer, Ph.D.
  • 1953 Laurence F. Shaffer, Ph.D.
  • 1952 J. McVicker Hunt, Ph.D.
  • 1951 Robert R. Sears, Ph.D.
  • 1950 Joy Paul Guilford, Ph.D.
  • 1949 Ernest R. Hilgard, Ph.D.
  • 1948 Donald G. Marquis, Ph.D.
  • 1947 Carl Rogers, Ph.D.
  • 1946 Henry E. Garrett, Ph.D.
  • 1945 Edwin R. Guthrie, Ph.D.
  • 1944 Gardner Murphy, Ph.D.
  • 1943 John Edward Anderson, Ph.D.
  • 1942 Calvin Perry Stone, Ph.D.
  • 1941 Herbert Woodrow, Ph.D.
  • 1940 Leonard Carmichael, Ph.D.
  • 1939 Gordon Allport, Ph.D.
  • 1938 John Frederick Dashiell, Ph.D.
  • 1937 Edward C. Tolman, Ph.D.
  • 1936 Clark L. Hull, Ph.D.
  • 1935 Albert Theodor Poffenberger, Ph.D.
  • 1934 Joseph Peterson, Ph.D.
  • 1933 Louis Leon Thurstone, Ph.D.
  • 1932 Walter Richard Miles, Ph.D.
  • 1931 Walter Samuel Hunter, Ph.D.
  • 1930 Herbert Sidney Langfeld, Ph.D.
  • 1929 Karl Lashley, Ph.D.
  • 1928 Edwin G. Boring, Ph.D.
  • 1927 Harry Levi Hollingsworth, Ph.D.
  • 1926 Harvey A. Carr, Ph.D.
  • 1925 Madison Bentley, Ph.D.
  • 1924 G. Stanley Hall, Ph.D.
  • 1923 Lewis Terman, Ph.D.
  • 1922 Knight Dunlap, Ph.D.
  • 1921 Margaret Floy Washburn, Ph.D.
  • 1920 Shepard Ivory Franz, Ph.D.
  • 1919 Walter Dill Scott, Ph.D.
  • 1918 John Wallace Baird, Ph.D.
  • 1917 Robert Mearns Yerkes, Ph.D.
  • 1916 Raymond Dodge, Ph.D.
  • 1915 John Broadus Watson, Ph.D.
  • 1914 Robert Sessions Woodworth, Ph.D.
  • 1913 Howard Crosby Warren, Ph.D.
  • 1912 Edward Thorndike, Ph.D.
  • 1911 Carl Emil Seashore, Ph.D.
  • 1910 Walter Bowers Pillsbury, Ph.D.
  • 1909 Charles Hubbard Judd, Ph.D.
  • 1908 George Malcolm Stratton, Ph.D.
  • 1907 Henry Rutgers Marshall, AM
  • 1906 James Rowland Angell, MA
  • 1905 Mary Whiton Calkins, AM
  • 1904 William James, MD
  • 1903 William Lowe Bryan, Ph.D.
  • 1902 Edmund Sanford, Ph.D.
  • 1901 Josiah Royce, Ph.D.
  • 1900 Joseph Jastrow, Ph.D.
  • 1899 John Dewey, Ph.D.
  • 1898 Hugo Münsterberg, Ph.D.
  • 1897 James Mark Baldwin, Ph.D.
  • 1896 George Stuart Fullerton, MA
  • 1895 James McKeen Cattell, Ph.D.
  • 1894 William James, MD
  • 1893 George Trumbull Ladd, Ph.D.
  • 1892 G. Stanley Hall, Ph.D.

Controversies

Conversion therapy

In 1973 APA's issued a statement that homosexuality is not a mental disorder.[25][26][27] There is a concern in the mental health community that the advancement of conversion therapy itself causes social harm by disseminating inaccurate views about sexual orientation and the ability of gay and bisexual people to lead happy, healthy lives.[28] Most mainstream health organizations are critical of conversion therapy and no mainstream medical organization endorses conversion therapy.[28][29][30][31][note 1]

The APA adopted a resolution in August 2009 stating that mental health professionals should avoid telling clients that they can change their sexual orientation through therapy or other treatments.

The "Resolution on Appropriate Affirmative Responses to Sexual Orientation Distress and Change Efforts"[32] also advises that parents, guardians, young people and their families avoid sexual orientation treatments that portray homosexuality as a mental illness or developmental disorder and instead seek psychotherapy, social support and educational services "that provide accurate information on sexual orientation and sexuality, increase family and school support and reduce rejection of sexual minority youth."

Psychologists advising interrogators

When it emerged that psychologists as part of the Behavioral Science Consultation Team were advising interrogators in Guantánamo and other U.S. facilities on improving the effectiveness of the "Enhanced interrogation techniques", the Association called on the U.S. government to prohibit the use of unethical interrogation techniques and labeled specific techniques as torture.[33] Critics pointed out that the APA declined to advise its members not to participate in such interrogations.[34] This was in contrast to the American Psychiatric Association ban in May, 2006 of all direct participation in interrogations by psychiatrists,[35] and the American Medical Association ban in June 2006 of the direct participation in interrogations of physicians.[36]

In September 2008, APA’s members passed a resolution stating that psychologists may not work in settings where “persons are held outside of, or in violation of, either International Law (e.g., the UN Convention Against Torture and the Geneva Conventions) or the U.S. Constitution (where appropriate), unless they are working directly for the persons being detained or for an independent third party working to protect human rights.”[37] The resolution became official APA policy in February 2009.

Amending the Ethics Code

In February 2010 APA's Council of Representatives voted to amend the association's Code of Ethics[38] to make clear that its standards can never be interpreted to justify or defend violating human rights. Following are the two ethical standards and the changes adopted. Language that is in bold was newly adopted:

1.02, Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other Governing Legal Authority

If psychologists’ ethical responsibilities conflict with law, regulations, or other governing legal authority, psychologists clarify the nature of the conflict, make known their commitment to the Ethics Code and take reasonable steps to resolve the conflict consistent with the General Principles and Ethical Standards of the Ethics Code. Under no circumstances may this standard be used to justify or defend violating human rights.

1.03, Conflicts Between Ethics and Organizational Demands

If the demands of an organization with which psychologists are affiliated or for whom they are working are in conflict with this Ethics Code, psychologists clarify the nature of the conflict, make known their commitment to the Ethics Code, and take reasonable steps to resolve the conflict consistent with the General Principles and Ethical Standards of the Ethics Code. Under no circumstances may this standard be used to justify or defend violating human rights.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Mainstream health organizations critical of conversion therapy include the American Medical Association, American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychological Association, the American Counseling Association, the National Association of Social Workers, the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Association of School Administrators, the American Federation of Teachers, the National Association of School Psychologists, the American Academy of Physician Assistants, and the National Education Association.

References

  1. ↑ APA.org
  2. ↑ APA.org, General Guidelines for Providers of Psychological Services
  3. ↑ APA Membership information
  4. ↑ "Currently, all (State) jurisdictions have laws that limit the use of the term psychologist to those who are licensed or who are specifically exempt, as in an exempt setting." (Reference: American Psychological Association (APA) Division 14, Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP))
  5. ↑ Psychologically Healthy Workplace Awards, apapractice.org
  6. ↑ Psychologically Healthy Workplace Program website, phwa.org
  7. ↑ 2007 National Psychologically Healthy Workplace Awards, phwa.org
  8. ↑ Apastyle.apa.org
  9. ↑ Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). 2009. Washington, DC
  10. ↑ American Psychological Association, Council of Editors. (1952). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Psychological Bulletin, 49(Suppl., Pt. 2), 389-449.
  11. ↑ American Psychological Association. (1957). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (Rev. ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
  12. ↑ American Psychological Association. (1967). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (Rev. ed.). Washington, DC: Author
  13. ↑ American Psychological Association, Task Force on Issues of Sexual Bias in Graduate Education. (1975). Guidelines for nonsexist language in APA journals. American Psychologist, 30, 682-684. doi:10.1037/h0076869
  14. ↑ APA Publication Manual Task Force. (1977). Guidelines for nonsexist language in APA journals [Change Sheet 2]. American Psychologist, 32, 487-494. doi:v10.1037/0003-066X.32.6.487
  15. ↑ American Psychological Association. (2009b). Chapter 3: Writing clearly and concisely [Supplemental material]. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Retrieved at Apastyle.org
  16. ↑ American Psychological Association. (2007a, April 13–14). Meeting of the Council of Editors [Agenda book]. APA Archives, Washington, DC.
  17. ↑ American Psychological Association. (2007b, May 18–20). Meeting of the Publications and Communications Board [Agenda book]. APA Archives, Washington, DC.
  18. ↑ APA.org
  19. ↑ Epstein, J. (2009, October 13). Correcting a style guide: Scholars turn to style manuals for guidance in authoring error-free manuscripts, but what happens when the manual itself is laden with errors?" Inside Higher Education.. Retrieved from Insidehighered.com
  20. ↑ Journals By Title
  21. ↑ "PsycINFO Journal Coverage". American Psychological Association. January 2010. http://www.apa.org/pubs/databases/psycinfo/coverage.aspx. Retrieved 2010-01-25. 
  22. ↑ APA .org
  23. ↑ APA.org
  24. ↑ "Noted psychologist Theodore Blau". St. Petersburg Times. February 1 2003. http://www.sptimes.com/2003/02/01/Hillsborough/Noted_psychologist_Th.shtml. Retrieved 2007-09-14. 
  25. ↑ R. L. Spitzer, "The diagnostic status of homosexuality in DSM-III: a reformulation of the issues", American Journal of Psychiatry 138 (1981): 210-15.
  26. ↑ "An Instant Cure", Time; April 1, 1974.
  27. ↑ The A.P.A. Normalization of Homosexuality, and the Research Study of Irving Bieber
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 "Just the Facts About Sexual Orientation & Youth: A Primer for Principals, Educators and School Personnel". American Academy of Pediatrics, American Counseling Association, American Association of School Administrators, American Federation of Teachers, American Psychological Association, American School Health Association, The Interfaith Alliance, National Association of School Psychologists, National Association of Social Workers, National Education Association. 1999. http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbc/publications/justthefacts.html. Retrieved 2007-08-28. 
  29. ↑ "American Medical Association policy regarding sexual orientation". American Medical Association. 2007-07-11. http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/about-ama/our-people/member-groups-sections/glbt-advisory-committee/ama-policy-regarding-sexual-orientation.shtml. Retrieved 2007-07-30. 
  30. ↑ "Homosexuality and Adolescence" (PDF). Pediatrics, Official Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics 92: 631–634. 1993. http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/reprint/92/4/631.pdf. Retrieved 2007-08-28. 
  31. ↑ "Physician Assistants vote on retail clinics, reparative therapy". SpiritIndia.com. http://www.spiritindia.com/health-care-news-articles-10085.html. Retrieved 2007-08-28. 
  32. ↑ Resolution on Appropriate Affirmative Responses to Sexual Orientation Distress and Change Efforts
  33. ↑ APA Press Release, August 20, 2007
  34. ↑ Stephen Soldz: Psychologists, Guantánamo, and Torture: A Profession Struggles to Save Its Soul (ZNet, 3 August 2006); Protecting the Torturers Bad Faith and Distortions From the American Psychological Association (CounterPunch, 6 September 2006); Letter to the CEO of the American Psychological Association (OpEdNews.com, 28 November 2006)
  35. ↑ Statement on Interrogation (PDF file)
  36. ↑ New AMA ethical policy opposes direct physician participation in interrogation
  37. ↑ Ethicalapa.com
  38. ↑ APA.org

External links